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ҽƴѧ

1894ռսʧܣй˵ΣʶͼǿΪ
һǿ˼ʹйᷢչĽ̳شתۡ⻼
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ᶣŰ֮СڱУյʱϰߣҺ
ּá˽ҵѾ٣Ҳͼ
Ѱ٢١ȻȴʱһЩ
ҽԱ̢ԩ衣ǣƫ
ĶᷢһλԶ׿ʶµҽѧ
ңҲǾǿǻʶͰ黳Ļ˶ߡ
ʷļ飬岻ûʱʧ
ҽҵȻش塣ҵľ˵ĻϳԽʱ
ͼµĽܳԼǸʱ

 мڴˣ߱ѡˡҽоС20067ɰ
մѧ档õ£ɼĸ顣

ƽ[1] 

 ο[1]⣬и硶ԡҽ
⼯ʷϺṩϽкʵͲ䡣

18791028գҳ㽭؝ϴһƶļͥ
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ԪΪУ1903기ϺְѧýԱ귵磬򱱹
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1911꣬ϰҽѧɡʮֶӡ
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Ϊľģһ֪ߣͶھǿٱȺ꣬
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궬ְ˺ͬʱҽҩоҽѧ
и

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ҸհԶһǿҽѧоҪ壬ֿо
չҽѧоҵȻԼձѧɹ˶ڼְƽоԺ
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νĵ֮ҽ ˾顷ʵΪ߲ѶΪ֮
ҽѧǰ;֮ϣԳֱ׳־ѳѹ
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͡лҽѧ־༭εְ1935꣬αƽоԺԼоԱ1944꣬
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ȻбʵĲͬΪҽȱݣΪɷϣҲһ
Ϊҽ֮ʤҽߣ˺Ϊ [5] ͬʱ֧־ٰҽѧ
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ٸꣻʦ֣֮֮أͳϲԮʲ֮˵֮Ҳ
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Ϊ֪ʶӺҽϲǧ˿Ƶϵ
ﶼнӲʸȨӪ෴ٳ͵Ȩʼձ
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һܵǼǣͣҽѧУ׼ͽڶǾٰҽٽ
ҽ̭ͬʱҪҩ͡ҽΪйĹ
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൱ӣְȺιϺиЭίԱ
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ҽרίԱίԱ̲ıίԱίԱл񹲺͹ҩ䡷
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ԾйõĹؼָʾȫؾٰģʢĳ
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ҽϣвʹҽĵطǺõģҽ
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ΪԵҽĽëϯҽŽľԼΰ
ΰػǣӦӭμҽС飬Ҫ
ĸҽѧҽ˵кô[9]

ڴ˴λϣ䲼룬аŽ
ҽ˺󣬸ʡпҽѧУտҵҽޣϵͳѧϰҽѧ֪ʶ
ĿʹҽѧвѧԱΪҽĹǸɣЩҽ
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ҵѧɾ

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յһλҽ˵Ҷ֪ҽǰҽ
ҽѧо൱ĻһҽԶԶĪ[12]
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ᶶҽβνЧޱԲʧ
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Ļʾ䣬Ӧáﲡضֻʵȣ
ܿҩˣӼġۡήʮ壬
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ҽҪ֤ϸǣ۳ƪд¡˺ӡȷӡ
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˶ڼԭȱ˽⣬ĿֻճȻ󣬰ѷ硢
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ѵھϰŴʱΧһ
ѣǲ֪ʱ޳ʶľٶȥֲһ縰
붦죬סƬ̣ꣻҲ˻ʣƼߡ
޵٩˵纮ιη纮绢η²ҮԻ
˼Ϊٲ֮һ֮ҲڲѺټΪ
ٲ֮ȴģԳߡη纮绢һҲš
󴫡غ֮˵֤νԭǡ̫֮Ǳ
С

еذյеһǽʽ۵˼άʽӡ
ɲţɾš󲻿ɾƾνƾҽɲϣ
Ȼ಻ɾϡȣһɲɾʽ
̥֮˵ͳ԰֮อ˵Ϊԡɲ
Ϊרļ˵ڡһǷǡȡ
Ͱᣬи׼ȷʶ㣬ܶı̬Ҫ˵أԼ
ʵе㲻򻷾ʱĹϵܲάһ£Ҫ˵
أʵںػʵĹϵܲһ£Ū
ѣֳìۣάһʱ۵
ԭֻ֪ʶ㣨ɲɾ
ĹǡֻҪ࣬ͺˡҪ̫
ԲͨʦͳСͳ
˼ϰߡ˼һײˣֲ⡢ӹ
̬ȣģɺֺõġɲɾǽʽ
۵ȻʮʢС

ᶶҽżеľмӡޡࡷйڡˮ͡
֮Ŀ΢ӷ״侱ʱȣ
ϣߣˮҲ״ˮ׼֮ի
ʡ١˵ǵˡԵѷʽʵǣ
ѧķоǿ롣

 ˼ǣ˵΢ף˯ѵӣԲ
ʱԣʰˮסǷˮ̶͡ˮ׵
ü׼ȷ

ҹҽѧǧ꣬˿ڷֳΪδʼǴҽѧά
ȫʡ顷ǽ80ǰһҽ鰸ҽ
㣬˵˵˾ҽ֮ԣӹס
κ֮֮ӡвΣҽ˼˵
临ҽȻʮǧ?򡷣ɼ֮ҽ
ʵǿG󣬾Ϊ塱ȫʡ顷
Сҽ߲٣ʵҽ㲻ϣȫ̰֮
ʲôβĳɼ˿о֤˿ڵȻеĶȺƣ
ʳͻ֧䣬ȻĹɡ18ǰ߳ʵ
ڴ󳬹Դάֵܶʵ߼ƣʹ
ڳͼ[15]ҹ˿ڱǨӰزͬһ
˵˿ķΧڲģ
ϵĸʱ˿ھͻܵսĺߵصӰ죬õ
[16]ӰཡĻʳΪŴҽҪУ
ҽƵСҽѧʩ˿ֻб߼ЧӦӰҲҪ
Ѿִȵ½Ժˣܰ˿ڷܲʢ鹦ڹ
ҽƣִҽƶ˿ڵҲҪ [17,18]

1920꣬ѧ嵾˵ԭ󣬹Ž񲻱䣬
ͬȻɣһ[19]ѧһԪģ֮֡ѧ
˵νҽҽ֣֮Ҫ֣֮ǹŽ֮졣ҽ
ҽӦóΪҽҽ[20]ԣ˵ҹġƵھӡ
ȵġʤ͹ϣϣ׵ġҺ˵ͬһʱ
ݴƣй֮ͬһʱҽѧҪͨǻп
ܣҩۻ顷ոԺ󣬡ҽѧϿѧչĵ
·̥ǣΪոµҽѧѾΪִѧһ֧
ѧҪɲ֡ҽʲԷ⣬ǰѧʱĹŴҽҽѧ
֮𡢱֮⣬ٽҽѧĻͨǵʩˡ

ڷֹҽԹҽݵ

ѧձάµӰ죬ĩʼµҽѧ
˼Ϊ֮һ䡣ʱҽҳҽѧһѧҲᳫҽѧķչ
Ƕ˵ҽѧûķֱֻѧҽѧͿѧҽѧķֱ[21]ᳫ
ҽѧѳΪʱѧߺϲԱĹʶҪݡҽѧ
ֹ͡ҽʷ

19127£ٿһʱ顣깫ѧУϵͳ
Ͱ䲼·깫Ĵѧ̣ҽҩ©ΪҽҩĿγ̻ѧ
ơ19139£ƾνܳϳҽڣϺҽҩ
ಮյ˹Ķ£1123ոҽҩҵ֯ҽҩԸǰ
Ժ뱣ҽҩҽҩܻԸ顷гƣҽѧ
̶ȡѧ֮ƣ߿ġȻԱΪ
ҽҩΪǿ֮Ҫأоϵپҽҩʵɣ
̭򲻿ɡ ᳫҽҩ׼ѧҽҩרѧУ
˳顣[22]ڻԸҽʱȻʾҪĽֹ
ҽȡƤݸ [23]19141£Ϊ˻ìܣ͹Ժʾ
ҽԺʾ˵йҽѧѧεΪרƣ
ǰˣҽѧγ̣רȡв
޹Ѽɣзҽ֮Ҳ[24]ҽ
ҩܻ˵ͬѧվרſѧѧ˵Ϊ
⡭ҽѧֻѧ걸֮ƣȻߡ
ްҽҽҲҽҽҩרѧ
У֮Ӧӹ顣[21] 

1917꣬ҷˡء̶ҡҽϵͳС1925꣬
ҽٴԸҪҽѧУѧУϵͳС
׫ҽѧУϵͳ顷һļΪǡ֮ΥȻ֮
ѧ֮ظ֮ҽԸδܳɹ鰸ûеõ
׼

192922326գϾٿһίԱ顣
ʱѦγ㡣ѦɽˣͶ
£ڹеҪְѧҽѧ
ʿѧλǰЭҽԺƽںԺΪίԱίԱ
ˡֹҽɨҽ֮ϰɣһǡҽߣ
Сอƾս׫ȫʵǡ֤
һ֮ѪΪ硢ء֧อ丽ᣬ
ˡǼġ޷ٷ򣬿࣬Ԥݣ
һʤΡ֮ƣȫΪ֮á
Ļ֮ݽԾͨΪؼҽճףγ֮
ڣѵᣬʹ֪΢ϸΪ֮ԭҽ
䡮ںز£Ϊ^ű˵Խ̲ңᳫ
ͨѧǣҽһղ˼һղ䣬ҽҵһ
ϣһղܽչΪƣΪƼƣɲȡȻ
ֶΡ˹Ҵƣū֮ҲϺϲĸֹҽйص
᰸ͨˡ涨ҽǼǰԭ鰸ͨΪֹҽ
ʵСҪ᰸һҽҪǼǣȡִաǼ
1930ֹֹҽѧУȡ־ȷǿѧ֮
ƷǼǽܾҽɣС

ֹҽ⵽ҽǿҷԡ316գҽȫ
ƺƴԸ˶ٿĹ뵳ԺԺȴ
ԸҪֹҽǰҽλںǡӵҽ
ҩǱҹĹ⡱ȡҽҩ²ᳫҽԷ
ĻԡᳫҩԷԡ[23]ҽҩ˵ɡ⡱ѡ
ҽΪĻԣĶڵԱʩѹ
ͬʱùϵ֮ìܣȡ£Ԫϵ֧[25]

֯Ѧ꣬Ԫҵ֧ߡ
ѧձάµӰ죬ŷֹҽ١ͷǹ
ɣ̷]ʯΡɭա¹ͽõ
ԪϣɶûкøУЩԪ϶ҽ
ŷϳҽǲѦϺҽҩ弯ᷴί
Ա֮ҽǼǰ£߷̸Ҫ£ҽҩȫ
ҪҽҩҵܷŬ϶ʱԽþҽ֮
᰸ֻίԱǵһţܷҪʵ޿ܡʱȫԼ
ǧأҽռʮ֮һҽҩ֧֮䡣ȫ
ҽҩҵ߼ҵڣؽͼĽ˥
Ӱ񾭼áͬʱ˵ҽҩҹƾõʷӦã۶࣬
ʱҽҩҵߣʲԷ⣬Ϊ֮ˣӦҽ
ҩߣֱоѧѧѧѧҩѧȿĿй֮ҽ
ҩ伮һϵͳʺִ֮Ҫֱ׷֪ʶ
Ȼ̭֮ϵĽҲΪҪཫ
ĮѾеġҽʦһⶩеġҽʦ
ҪĿӦҪٽڽ˼ڽ
ϯ쵼Ͼճ꣬Ȩάȶ
󣬹ϯ׼ԸģԺòǰ
һɳά [27] ڡ

 193367գ306λϣۡҽݰʱ
˵ҽУؽʣڿѧʵ֤ݣҩȫ޷
βЧΪã˻ܹҽҩ֮󣬹Ųҽ
ҩ ŸϳҽҩҽӦһɲִҵȫҩ
ҲӦЪҵᳫҽõȥ̹˳[23,26]
 Ĺٴ
߷ϯʣΪԸйҽҩ֮йҽ
ҩ֮ԣάһͣݳʽҽѧУΪϰ
ҽҽԺΪҽңֹֽҽеҩʹйҽҩҵɽչ
Υֹܣ֮ѵӦԺòǰ
άԺο򡣳⣬Ӧ¼ͺա
	
ȫҽҩϻԸž÷ֵȡ
			Ĺٴ   ʮʮ¶ʮ

ʵչйƽִͬʱǿͷﴫͳĻһ
ойҽĻѧߡʷѧҿ밣Ϊз
ִУͳĻĻΣµ
ʶĵ壬ʹôͳĻĸֶ
øӱصı־ʥַйӡȣ
Կܵĳ嶯κҸǿңֻң
ҽѧǿҵرֳңҽӡȵķҽѧһ2020
ڸԹҵ˶У쵼ҵ˼԰ڽ
ԺĿѧ֧ںϳΪһ๲ͬĿѧΪʲô
ҽͷҽѧȹŴҽΪҽϵͳԱڿѧڸԵĹұ
أ밣˵һʷƾõĴĻ
ԾӣѧĴģ뵼Ļ𵴺𣬴ں
ڱĻͳһҽԴԶԳϵ
۾䱾ѧйΪͳĻҪɲ[28]⣬ҽ
ƱصйءҽѧȻǿѧҽмյĳɷ֣ҽҩЧ
ĻصӰ졣ڼܰʾص㣬κһ
ЧҩҽܱΪЧҽ̰֮

193057գڹίԱλϣ̷ͨ]
򡢽õίԱҽݡ᰸47գ
ҽϾιݳ³Ϊҽѧ
ڸ³Ĺҽ趨ˡԿѧķҽѧѧչѧо
ּ⻹Ҫں⼰ʡֹݣ֧ݡ19335£
λϣʯ29λίԱˡҽԭ򡷲ݰԺ
ίԱĳɡҽݰЩ¼Ⱥ󷢱£л
ҽҩѧԺ۹ҽ顷19312£ҽԺ鲵顷
19314£ڽáΪйҽ页֮ȶ1932
͡ƶҽҽݹҽ֮1933¶
ҽݹҽ⣬ڰѹҽѧأһ
Զȡܻ֮ȨԼǽҽǼƹǻ
19361£ҽݰΪҽһ£
Ǿҽݵ壬١øġҽ
ԸΪҽܵӣҪҽƽȡҽȫʤڵԪҵ
˼ᶨ֧֣ǹCC¹١
⡱ΪչҽŬ

 CCָι볣ί֯ԺԺְ
¹ܳɵֲCCǿƹͳ֡
ǵɵҪɽ𰲲ӣŻȡӢҽȨ[23]

ֹҽԹҽݽмҵҽ½
ԨȻҽϺֹݵºƸоίԱҪΪ
оҡΪ͹ҽѧ޳ҡҡ˷
ѧϹƳӡ½Ԩᶺ1933218ա
˵ҽ֮ĸʮ꣬ҽÿѧҽѧ
ҽһձչߣδʼƽջ֮
Լġҽҩѧٲݰĸ½Ԩ׵
ֿԸұֽϣȥ쵼ԲܾƸ
Ϊʱδ족ڽáΪйҽ页֮ȶ
ԹҽݵϣǣһѹҽݵоأҪáƵھ
ꡣڶ붮ÿѧѧʡͷȥĹ
ҪҪɣСʮûмֵĶȥ˵
ҽоߣһС֮ҩﾭѡȻҩЧʶΪ
Ⱦ֮¡շȶԻаʧܳơ֪֮ҩЧ
ӶԺлҽҩѧԺ۹ҽ顷

1950꣬˵ҽںѣҷҽ
ѧ֮󣬲ϣǸı֪¶¹ʣǺܺ
˼ƣҩڡƣҩѣʼ񬡣ҽ˹ѵ
ΪУӿܣǴģе㲻ʶôķ
Ҳȱ㣬ֻ˵ƻһ棬ûȡĹԷΪҪ
Ͷ˿ֻҲѹֵġ[29]ʵ֪ϳҽ¹ش
漰ҽ棬᰸һ˵оҽΪ࣬
ơϰ߾˹ǣֹ߲ɹ衣ͬʱҲǵϰף
ĸ˼ֹܹ֮ҽɨҽ֮ϰ

ᶶҽ˼ҵҽвѣõ
мʶҽ硣ҽ´ιҶƺδʵȶѣ
ĳΪͬѧż̵ҽ࣬Ƕʮ־塣
ҽѧỹͬ༭ҽ̿ĳдһλҽ
ϸġҽ⡱ϯȫһ飬
ᶵĴᷢԣܸжصطʾԼд¡żз֮
Ϊѧۣ֮Ҳںڡɼ˸

Щ˵ҽеģ̡̫ش˵ڱ
̣ԡ̽ٻ֮ͣҶ֮ž̥֮
½֥̣֮й֮޲ҽؼ࣬ᡶ̶ҡ
Ϊߣ⣬̱֮ڧΪǽ֮ھҽǰ;޴
̶ҡָ֮ժΪ꣬ھҽ֮ŵ㣬и֮壬ʶ
֮йҲȪѪܲͬ˵

ʵʱҽһҽĲˡ19499£
ϺԷ֯ҽ̸ᡱľкüλҽн
ιϺһҽѧԺɽҽԺɽҽԺҽΣǽ
ҽγ̡һλҽʦҶٵи¸ңһ
˵ǳһλҽ£ºܶš

 Ҷ1900-1955㽭ˡϺҽҵϺҽר
ѧУϺйҽѧԺڡ봴졶ҽҩ¿Сҽ
ѧ˺ءپѧ˵֮ҩ⡷ķ
ѧҪִҽ鰸ҩƷ鰸ȡ

ҽۣȫйʱ⽨вģδһ
и˵иݣһĻۣ˵һЩҲûС֮
ֽơΨĵģŵģģѧģֱٲʤ١
ʱҽ˷Уǣб֣
Ѹֻϧڶְҵҽѹʸƽ𿴴˹ͷг
ѧɵÿЦΪȻ֮Ȩ˾ܲʹļף
ûִۣҵߵܣȫ֮ģ
𳦵¶Ӧʮŵ[30]

ᶺ͵ʱһЩѧġֹҽȷʵձά·ֹ
ҽӰ죬ڽߡҲзЧй鰸ձʵ
зֹҽ50֮󣬵ȴȫͬԭֵ˼·֮
˵Ϊҹ֮ҽ̲֮Ҳƽȥ
ū˼棬ۺ顢顢֮ѧ
֮ԾҽѧӰΪν̭ҽߣ˾ѧһ
顢֮äĿҲ[31]¼һλ֤ߡѧҳ־Ǳ
ʮ֮˵ҪǵĿѧҽѧƶ߲ȡһֽΪº͵ķʽҽ
ûн׳󣬶һڿѧҽѧ͸ǵ
[32]ʷܼ裬⻰ҲûпǺءҽ
ͷҽѧҹӡܹڵĸԴӦ
ΡãرǴĻȥѰҡ

о

19ĩ20ͳձŷһЩͶ
ҩֲҩоձҩɷȡϳɼСǣӦɷֽ
ҩʵ飬Ƽ⣬ʵջ١˶ѧ߶ҩɥʧ
飬ΪֵȥоΪҹҩҪأȻֵ
оرǵʱ£ҩ̫࣬û
õģо֮ǰһѡĹ

ΪоҩַʽһҩȻѧ
ɷ֣ٽҩʵ顣Ŀѧձŷ߹й
Ҳ߹õҩЧòʧһҽҩ
ֱٴٴʵķȥ֤ʵҩЧ˵ҽ
⣬ʹۣ֮︡ʵǴҩ֮Чֲɡоҩ֮Ч
ܣǲοǧ֮Ͷٹ󣻷֮ѧ
ʵɶȷȫʡ顷ҽҩо
ԡΪѡҩҪҽľ飬ѯҽľ֮⣬һ
ǰҹмֵľҽеĹŷ㼯һѰΪʲôһҪŷأ
˵ΪӣıȽϿĽթٳ
нԪɵĿڣԱȽϵĿסѧĹҩо֮
һ֤ʵҩЧоĻѧɷ֡ҩٴЧã˹
ɡرǰҽѡȡҪ߼ԱȽϹɣܽһЩҩ
總ӡĵȵЧġҩо[33]֪
ҽҩ鲢ȫɿΪĴۣҪȴӻѧ
Сöࡣ磬ձȡƼûпҽݣ֪
ֹãҩʵҲˣù˳¿˻֢ٷˡ˵Ϊ
˽ҩĳɷֺҩþֱӽٴǿӦҽϰ
õҩܳصĶãٴʲôΣա

 ¿˻֣1898C1988ҩѧҡҩҩѧоƼ
ֹȷֵġ

ԭ䣬ǡӳľõľżȻ֡ҽʦ
Щ飬ڲӦãʶЩҩúͶԣԱݡҽ
ֻ鷽ĻۡΪҹβҩɷΪʱڣپ
˺ۡԺֱΣԷ٣ҩ֮ܣĳҩĳĳ
֤ĳҩ䵱ȻǿȻעʵã䷽ڹ۲죬
ʱ֮ѧӶũӡ¼ߣҩ֮ã
֮˵ǣԪԺҩԺΪҩ֮ԣ֮
֮˵νĳҩΡĳҩΡĳҩĳҩľʵʧ͹ۣ
ۿߵ֮ʵ֮ѧʱѧ֮Сν
ġˮѧɡԪؼ꽺أʼáʡʱۡ
Сο༱ʳԻ֮Ŀ໺ʳ֮Լɢʳ
ɢ֮֮к֮XʳX̲֮֮к
֮ԼۡƪеġΣΣģ
ƢΪҩĸ[34] ˵ҩЧߣ֮ζ
пԸߣǣ֮ã֮ɫֲã֮ڸ
ʵҶղ֮ʱ֮ˡ෽Լ߮񣬴
ʳ˶֮֮Ҳգ׫Һݡ
רɫζ֮ʪϱ㻨ʵȡ֮ʱڣ
ǣľΡε˵ǫǣţνǸϷȻ֮
Ϊߣζý׳Ҳ ԪԺ󱾲ҩ۸
ҪѱݸԽԽ·βԲνôҩ
֣֮իʡԭݵӦòûʲôۣ䡰Ըۡ
ҩ;丽ġ1729꣬ձ㴨޵ġһҩѡ˵
ҩʱˡҩʽȣڡʡ
ۡʹкζҩԪΪ֮ٸʼ
꽡˽Խҽ֮ŷ£񣬶֮ǿۣ£
˵֮ԡ

Ϊҩжģҩҩ֮ࡱߡ˵
֮ҩζغҶʿڣν֮ҩЩԭ;飬н
ҩΪϡСࡣҩΪӦ죬޶ҩΪ
Ӧˣ޶жҩΪʹβӦأ඾β
ҩжԵġԣ˵ҩѣʼ񬡣˶Դ
⣬Ȼϲͨͻҩдǵ˵޹й
˵ֺαҩأҽֻг԰µ
ݾ˵ƷѰʳ֮β֮ҩ˵ÿ
Ʒ֮ҩδ󲡣㡣֪ͤ֡¼˵֮ʱӹҽ
ɱˡ֮ʱӹҽɱˣ಻ˡʹڲ֮䣬䲡
ҩ桷ΪҩѧԭҩĲľ
ຬֲҩԵν񾭶ԭʶⶾ඾
඾ߣпܳΪβҩҲΪຬֲЩѧ
ͼȴзҩ۵Ҳֲ
ء

ᶶҽҩõʵ֧֡19291215գռ
˵·֮ʿᶲʿͬǴ̸ҽ⣬洦
ҽϾʱ鷽оֵ֮пɿ
߱루ǣ¿ѧңǾҽΪҺϡ[35]Ǹʱ
ҽѧȻϸѧѧٴѧѾ˼ʵĿѧ
ЧȻʮƶҹѧ߼ϣҩνġҽ
ҩǰѧӻѧͻͽĿĵؽлҩ
ƺͻѧϳɣЧͶЧҩԶȴȻѰҩ
ЧʡǸʱѧԤϵġ

 йҽѧʷо

йҽѧʷо࿪ԵĹΪоʷ
1937𣬰ҹֹĲ֤Լ֤ݴѼ
Կ֤1946ɣȺ׫дˡ͡ԲڬŲ
ڬ˵Ľֲ⡷Ų衷͡ʮ衷͡
ڬ͡⡱Ϊ衱ΪйŴ塷
ǰʮ档4ойŴҽѧʷıض

ڶҽżйؽ˲֤Ŀ֤Уᶷ֣Ʒν֤
أǳԪԴۡͿȺеĹţ
⡶̨֮ԡʬע˵֪дȾԡ֮
ۣ硶á͡ԣǳνˣȼ֮
۹Ϊϸ𣬳Ժ󣬼
Ժ󣬼ӿȡȺɫףռ࣬֬ɫǮԼ
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׼顷ҹڹҽѧʷԲʧοֵ硶
йҽѧԹš͡ԴԡԭԵо
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ҽǷǺǰ;֮ǲɱģѧӦǲѵóʶġǣ
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1950꣬͹ʼݹƶˡŽҽ
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ԽԽԶѧҲΪɣҽ֮Ⱥӡҽλ
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1925뵳μӹսͳ͹νžܺڲ
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ĳߡ
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о棬䱾ĿΪѧо׷ѧ˺ƶ
ߣṩһҽʷı

[ע]õעο⣬ɲġҽо
Сܱעմѧ磬2006

ο

1. лҽѧϺֻҽʷѧ. Ժ.лҽʷ־1954
281-84
2. Ӿ. . .ҽѧ۳.. Ϻоң
1950 319 
3. . ʺҽѧ. Ϻҽݣ1931
4. . йŴ. 磬1953
5. ̫.йҽҩ⡷򣻶ڲž֮ȶ. ̫ȫˣ.
Ϻ: Ϻ棬2003348-350332-333
6. Ȫ. йҽѧо. ȪĴ. Ϻ: Ϻ棬2003
33-39
7. ҽҽ̸¼ժ¼.ҽϣڶ.
л񹲺͹칫ӡ. 19558-31
8. ᶡδʡ. ҽʵʩݰ. ҽϣڶ.
л񹲺͹칫ӡ. 195541-46
9. س. ڵһȫҽ̸ϵķ.θ.ҽ. 
֣ʦѧ磬200584-86
10. .˼ѧѧϰϺйҽѵѧ
ݽ. ҽҩ19523241
11. ҽƴѧУʷд. ҽƴѧУʷ壩.ҽƴѧ
200639
12.ҽҽԪĴ.ҽ־1999263
128. http://www.100md.com/html/DirDu/2004/08/31/53/80/11.htm.
13̫ף壩. . ϺҽѧԺԺ19271μ. 
̫ΪСûʲô.
(http://www.hope.org.cn/hope/dispbbs.asp?boardid=1&id=4218)
14. Ҷ. ҽ̸ϵķ. תԣ. Ž.ҽҩ磬1950
515-7
15Livi-Bacci, M. A Concise History of World Population. Blackwell, 
2nd ed., 1997:3.
16. ˿ڣй. Ĵ磬1988 34-40
17McKeown, T. The Role of Medicine. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 1986: 
7-9.
18Acheson, RM and Hagard, S. Health, Society and Medicine. Blackwell 
Scientific Publications, 1984: 25; 85.
19.Ļ˶. ѧ⣬19224μ֪ۡѧĻ
Ҫ.й㲥ӳ磬199580
20ҽҩȫ֣ݣϳ磬1988416
21°. йҽѧʷ.ӡݣ1937257-268
22[|׫].ҽҩܻԸ.ҽѧ־1922881-86
23תԣ. йҽɱҵݱ. ʷѡ.
1.ʷϳ磬1985125-138 
24Ժҽҩܻʣҽѧ־1922(8)89
25´.Ԫʱʷ.Ϻ磬2000111-130 
26褣Ϲҽҩ֮Ҽҽ紺1933(83) 2-5
27ϯάҽҩȫҽҩԸ֮.ȫ. 31
ս磬2003557-538
28Croizier, RC. Medicine, Modernization, and Cultural Crisis in 
China and India. In: C. E. Black(ed). Comparative Modernization, The 
Free Press, N.Y. 1976:238-253.
29.ȡҽ..4.ճ磬1998. 609
30Ҷ. ҽĽ飨¼. ҽϣڶ.л
͹칫ӡ. 195563-67
31·֮. ҽ֮ȶ. ҽ»㿯193317.
32Chen, CC־Ǳ. Medicine in Rural China: A Personal Account. 
University of Califonia Press, 1989: 182-183.
33. . ҩо. ҽҩ1953410185-187
11203-204ɳΣϲ.1955, 5381-82; ǰ.5 (4)109-110
34. Ӧ.ҽѧ˵.ϺƼ磬198649-54
35. .ȫ. 31ռ..ս磬2003. 537-538.
36.ҽѧʷѧо.ҽʷ.ִ.CINTCM.comƪ
ûἰйҽѧʷоϵκγɼ
http://www.cintcm.com/lanmu/zhongyi_lishi/Xiandaijuan/mulu/diliuzhang4
.htm
37СҰ.ҽѧеԹ۵.ڰ˽ȫҽʷѧ.
1988     
http://www.cintcm.com/lanmu/julebu_zhuanjia/yisheng_chenxiaoye/chenx
iaoye_lilun/lilum_7xudian.htm
38[28] ϸ룺ѧϸӡݣ1981199
39칫ҽϣһ.19554£[9]. 
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ƣģһЩ飬ͣԣң˻𳵹˾ԱĴ
ƣģԱáȫ˾ְһ񾭡ʳƷӦ¶ȶǼ
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пѱ棬ӷ߶ϰ̹ġ

漰ʳƷȫ˾ԸʮֵСģԻȡʮֵİա˷
Ҳͳˣһֻƻһߵ㣬ǵĿڵǿߵ㣬
ƻԳԣƻͶЩСڼ
˼ҿʹ

ƣģʳƷƱ׼ϵ󣻲ϧ˷ѣԱƽ


ʶˣƣģ

ƣģ鷳ԶĲ˵ȥףƣģӽй
⵽ֱõĿأȺؿˣˮ
ֳҵйƷѹôһξʹߺˣֳϰ
˹˵ұ˻ԼСҲŪòֵǮˣ

˹ĻĵҲȻֻ

йĶƣģܿ췢ﺬӼ
谷ɶ˥߶ƣģԱ纣й˾飬
йֵܷ⡣

谷붯֮󣬿ʹּ󡪡е
ʺݣˡ̿Դʡ´󶹡۵ȸ
ԭϣ󽵵ͳɱ谷ûκӪйı׼Ҳ
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谷ǽĹҵϹҵԭϡмӽȥ谷ǹ
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ԽˣУǧֻüͬ⣬ѱƣģֹ
УЩöιĳڶصĻã

ֹйˮƷͶϵĽڣܿӦŷ޹
ͬ塢Ųݿˡǡȣܿ췢ƣģԲ飬׷׽
ֹйͬƷڣйԴȱʾ飬ʾźٺͲˡ
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Ϊ⻪ˣϣóǰ;ϣй׬ȡԪ
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ȣһֹ۵Ϊϸı׼һЩ˷ѣһ


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ԣáϸ׼˷ѡȥɣƣģʳƷ׼δسԣ
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ֿڸֹڻģƣģû֡ 

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internal investigation report߹¼ʼĩϸڣ
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Class Actionֱ̨Ӻͼӵľʧ
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ϽԡȻ־µѡԱ

ߣ߳ǽ

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˼ȫȡ壬۸ᣬ˵䲻Ļȫǰѡ
ȻĽ߻һadvocatorʵŪΪʲôҪ
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     ǹٷԭģ߶ԱһӢԭĺģ֪ȫ
˱Ļ

    NatureȿУϵͳҽѧƼƽ̨оչ  
 
ϵͳҽѧƼƽ̨У985ص㽨شƼ
ƽ̨ڹȥ3ƽ̨֯УҽѧԺҩѧԺѧԺũҵ
ѧԺĶѧƵоϵͳѧΧش󼲲ҽ
ҩִش⿪չоȡҪչ

712ճĹNatureVol. 448, 12 July, 2007, 
pp126-128־ΪA Culture in the Balance д£
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July 2007, pp506-50720077ºڡĿҲ£
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ƷͨıڵľȺƼҪһ㣬Nicholson
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Ⱥķӻ춨˷ѧоȻ漯ţNPG
΢̬ѧᣨISMEϴISME JournalVol. 1, May 2007, 
pp156-162ϷҲȻйNature ChinaվΪ20076
ݵоص顣

Уϵͳҽѧоƽ̨ĹչNature־µĿ
վԱ飬ѧƽ̨оѾõѧ
עʾϵͳҽѧоǿ

ӣ

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v448/n7150/full/448126a.html

http://www.nature.com/nrd/journal/v6/n7/full/nrd2350.html

http://www.nature.com/nchina/2007/070606/full/nchina.2007.100.html
 
[Ķ]4375˴ [Ƽ]102˴ [] ϵͳҽѧԺҽѧԺ
ҩѧԺѧԺũѧԺ
[] 2007-07-19 

(XYS20070722)

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Michelle˽Ŀ־ֳνSCIENCEġձ

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ڿѧԺҲձ顣

ֳԴȻͬУ¼ԱɹҲ
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(XYS20070722)

˿(www.xys.org)(xys.dxiong.com)(xys.freedns.us)(xys-reader.org)

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ͻǵĲ죬ȷΪʲôҵȷĶǸ˵Ǵ
ġ෴ģʹʶǸ˵еǲԵģұ
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йĲԱǻ⡣

ееˣƵİϷ˵СתȦ
(spin)йֶӦõʷΪƾãĿǰѾ˹ٷһ
ξĳ淽һκι۵ͬʱ
ĬôܽĻü˽˾ȣΪÿζ
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״μߵ֣۵ӦйٷϢ
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λαԺȴ任˻⡣еĸڡ˼άµ
塣Ϣ顱ˡЧĽˡ֪ 
Ľ顱ɱɡĳĬǶᲢ
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˵˶ֻΪԴǡһ 
BBCļߣģ˵ýйĸ汨ͳƣ
˵áǲ(Tony Blair) ıܸˡ
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߷ζǣĿĵڶۣΨһһ̵ۣ
һйˡվηġеĿǴķݣ
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֪λְǽйܸ磬һַʽͨйձ
(China Daily)Ӣİձ(People's Daily)(the Beijing 
Review) ֮Ŀӡû˿ЩǾЩ
Ķն˸Ϊйʵʵ̼еһУΪ
࿯ֻ˵ĺࡣÿ˶֪ǲйֻǷ
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Ųڣһ滰һÿͷе뷨ǸӦ
˷ۣȴһй˽ˡλԱͷһЩ
תһ⣬˵ǵģǶͬйʵû˽⡣
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һŶԼŨصķ뿪ݲҡ 

(XYS20070722)

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Žڵʦү

νУhttp://blog.sina.com.cn/duanjianzhong

άԾѧΪҵȴѧ֮ȫţʳסУ
ڹƱȶָ㽭ɽǺ춥ѧ̼Ͽͣһʮ
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ڵĽӣԹҷˣÿ˴ӹп۳ʮԪ֧ũײ˾
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񻰣ײ˵ӪԶԶ˲ΡһӪѧо
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ԡֲ˽ƵġɡֻӻʱҼ
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ץһɳӣɳӷŽˮУһɳӳǵˮֱˣȻ
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ӱʿ³Ѹ鷨ԴӺ񡢲ͣâ¶ں
ΪƺƽһһĹ׾ȴ־׾޶޲
硶ʫ塷51ҳ1933Ƿ£ʲԺ񡢿īƺ
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۶֮³Ѹ鷨ڶʮ̳Գһ塢ƷλܸߣȫȱΪ
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ɬ෢ַ֮±ӡһڸ򲻺ͣһ
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˭֮˭³ѸԲȫ֮һνң³Ѹʵ
ڴ˾֮һ

һƼ׫ڲ޳ 20028壻 20031

οף

[1]³ѸסȪ.1979.

[2]³Ѹ־.1991.ʮճ

[3]³Ѹָȫռǵһᡷ1979.

[4]³Ѹָȫռǵڶᡷ1979.

[5]³Ѹʫ塷1976.

[6]³Ѹָѡࡷ1973.

[7]³Ѹָѡıࡷ1975.

[8]³Ѹ<Q>뱾ָ塷1975.

[9] ³ѸϦʰ⼯ʰš.

[10]ʮ鷨-ī㶫ӱϳ

[11]ʮ鷨-ĭ㶫ӱϳ

[12]鷨о92ڡ³Ѹ鷨̽

[13] 鷨о20016

[14] й鷨չרš1998ڶ

[15] й鷨1995

[16] 鷨1978һ

[17]˼ʻά1994.ȺԳ

[18] 鷨1989.

[19]ִټ鷨1996.Ĵѧ

[20]ǹӰ³ѸһЩ䡷

[21]³Ѹ׭̡.³Ѹо¿1995

[22]ԡ鼮װ֡.³Ѹо¿1998

[23]δʷҶ³Ѹ۽Ƚ˸ߵöࡷ.³Ѹо¿
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